International Sales Contracts Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 3500 words

International Sales Contracts - Essay Example Contract of sale is explicit and aid in deciding the issues, there are circumstances where the intention of the parties do matter apart from the legal terms forming part of the contract of sale. However as has been pointed out by Lord Wright in Ross T Smyth and Co Ltd Bailey, Son and Co1 the intention of the parties cannot be subjected to any proof; rather the intentions can be ascertained â€Å"from the terms of the contract, the conduct of the parties and the circumstances of the case.† This paper brings out the implications of the observations of Lord Wright about the intentions of the parties to a contract of sale with regard to the FOB and CIF contracts and also the improvements if any brought about by section 20A newly introduced by the Sale of Goods (Amendment) Act 1995 on the position of the CIF buyer of bulk goods. According to the basic principle in the law relating to the contract of sale, all the terms of the contract depends entirely on the intention of the parties to the contract. Though this situation is true in a number of cases this position is usually forgotten by the parties involved. However such intentions cover even the terms governing the time at which the title and risk pass to the buyer. Hence it can be stated that only under the circumstances where the intention of the parties is not clear or if the agreement between them is silent the law relating to the sale of goods provides the missing terms to conclude the contract or settle the dispute if any. This position of importance given to the intention of the parties in a contract of sale is recognized even by the common law statutes and the civil codes. Under the Sale of Goods Act 1979, the ‘intention of the parties’ has been referred to in a number of instances. Under section 10 the phrases â€Å"unless a different intention appears from the terms of the contract† are being used. Sections 17(1), 18 and 20 of the Sale of Goods Act 1979 also have used the intention of the parties.

Scientific Management Essay Example for Free

Scientific Management Essay Scientific Management was a new form of management that evolved in the late 1800’s that was based on a number of principles that analyzed the activities of individuals, which in turn, optimized efficiency and productivity. In this essay I will discuss the major advances that were pioneered by Frederick Winslow Taylor, Henry Gantt and Frank and Lillian Gilbreth. Frederick Winslow Taylor was thought of as the most influential business guru of the twentieth century. 154) Taylor was a well -educated man that started his work as a laborer and quickly moved up to a chief engineer at Midvale Steel Company. Through his various positions and experience within this company he discovered many problems that were apparent between management and laborer. His first attempt in his creation of Scientific Management was to combat a process called â€Å"soldiering†. Taylor observed how the process of soldering led to low production because workers had intentionally worked slow, while making management believe they were working faster. Taylor identified two types of soldiering that workers practiced: natural and systematic. Natural soldiering was referred to as the â€Å"the natural instinct and tendency of men to take it easy. † Managers tried to overcome natural soldiering by forcing workers to be more productive. (123) Systematic soldiering was when workers all together would reason with one another to work slower. Taylor believed that workers systematically soldiered because of three main reasons. First, if workers completed their jobs faster, they believed they would be laid off. Secondly, when workers were paid by piece rate, if their production increased, they believed management would cut the piece rate requiring them to do more work for the same amount of pay they were receiving at the time. Finally, workers were accustomed to old work habits that were handed down from generation to generation. (124) Taylor believed that systematic soldiering posed more concerns than natural soldering. He thought that the problems arose because of management’s lack of responsibility to create proper jobs that offered good incentives. Taylor knew that a new industrial system would need to be created to correct the problems that were evident with management and laborer. Time Studies Taylor set out to develop a new system in an attempt to overcome the process of soldiering. Taylor believed he could determine how each job could be accomplished most efficiently and then establish performance standards based on his findings. (125) The first step in his system was defined as time studies, which was the beginning of Scientific Management. Taylor believed that he could overcome soldiering by determining what workers ought to be able to achieve with equipment and materials by scientifically setting performance standards. According to the authors of The Evolution of Management Thought â€Å"Taylor used a stop watch, weight scale and tape to literally measure the distances that workers and materials traveled. † (125) From his findings, Taylor discovered that workers used too much effort and materials to accomplish their tasks and believed this was mainly due to improper management. Taylor classified his time studies into two phases: analysis and synthesis. Analysis meant that each job was broken down into movements then the movement was described and recorded along with enough time allowed for unavoidable delays. Synthesis was all the movements in the correct sequence to determine the time and exact method for performing a job. (126)Taylor’s time studies created improvements in all elements that surround a job, careful examination of individuals at work led to a more efficient approach to perform tasks which ultimately reduced effort and increased production. Improved Incentives Taylor noticed that the traditional incentives for workers were discouraged in more ways than one. Taylor believed that management needed to create new incentive rates. Profit sharing and the old ways of paying positions instead of men, seemed to be inefficient methods. Taylor devised a three part plan that improved incentives which consisted of using time studies to set standards and pay rates, a differential piecework system that paid employees a higher rate per piece if they finished their work faster than specified, and lastly, paying the men instead of paying the positions. He believed that performance standards should be set before piece rates and rest period should be given more often to decrease fatique. Additionally, Taylor saw a need for a mutuality of interests between manager and worker and devised a system that would benefit both sides. The belief held by people was that higher wages led to higher costs. In turn, Taylor proved that higher wages would lead to lower costs and increased production with less effort. Employers didn’t have to pay low wages in order to gain momentum in the industry. Taylor also believed that some people are better suited for a position based on their will and ambition; he referred to these people as â€Å"first class workers. † Taylor urged that performance standards should be based on a first class workers pace and believed that management was responsible for identifying these types of workers. Throughout the years people assumed that production was increased by people working longer and harder, but the truth was, production increased if people worked smarter not harder. People used their resources more wisely and learned the most efficient way to complete a job. Task Management System Taylor’s task management system utilized the time studies to dictate how long a task should take to be completed and used careful planning with detailed written instructions to assign tasks to workers. Taylor thought to motivate workers based on how long it took them to complete their job. The workers that finished their job in the allotted time received higher wages compared to those who did not. Management was aided in their tasks by a new term Taylor referred to as â€Å"functional foremanship†. Taylor felt that managers should have certain qualities in order for them to be efficient supervisors which include special and technical knowledge, tact, brains, energy, common sense and good health. Taylor used this selection process to determine what tasks managers should perform. This new system of planned performance allowed each person to be in charge of a different responsibility. Managers skills were specialized which resulted in a decrease in time it took to recruit and hire people who may not be a good fit. This system dramatically changed the way tasks were planned, before this time workplace layout determined how tasks were performed. Taylor went on to put his ideas into writing with a book called The Principles of Scientific Management. This book was a significant advance of the times and made Taylor a national hero in just twenty four hours. His findings that were released in this book, sparked much controversy, but ultimately gained popularity. His book was translated into many different languages just two years after the publication. (141) Taylor was credited for leading the world towards efficiency in more ways than one. Henry Gantt There were many people who followed Taylor’s scientific approach to management thought. One of these followers that had contributed greatly to management thought was Henry Gantt. Gantt was a man that recognized the demands of the world and knew he could have a better chance at making it in life by becoming educated. He obtained a mechanical engineer degree and began his work at the Midvale Steel Company alongside of Frederick Taylor. After working with Taylor, Gantt turned out to be strongly influenced by his ideas about how to manage industry. Gantt became one of Taylor’s leading disciples and moved on to create his own ways to improve management methods and make an industry more efficient. Like Taylor, Gantt knew that there was a need for a mutuality of interest between management and worker. Gantt believed that this theory started with the worker, he argued that the workingman was the most important element in management. (159) He urged that a successful atmosphere in industry was eminent when the employer has the best worker for the position and the worker believes his work is sold at the highest price. Task and Bonus System As Gantt began to examine the managers and workers more closely, he devised a task and bonus system, which was similar to Taylor’s differential piece rate system. Gantt experimented with his ideas before he found the system that was the best solution. He would offer bonuses to workers that completed a task in less than standard time, he offered bonuses to first line supervisors based on each workers performance to complete their task in the allotted time and offered an additional bonus to supervisors if all the workers completed their task in the time limit. He found that this system encouraged supervisors to become better leaders by teaching and helping workers to achieve maximum performance. This was an important concept that shifted management from forcing workers to meet standards to leading them in a cooperative manner. After a while, workers and management started to resist the work methods Gantt created. The workers went on strike and Gantt eventually had to find and train replacements. This occurrence led Gantt to believe that management owned the role of training workers more thoroughly. In addition, Gantt added more training that used industriousness and cooperation, which he referred to as the â€Å"habits of industry†. According to the authors of The Evolution of Management Thought, â€Å"Gantt felt that as a result of doing their work promptly and to the best of their ability, workers would experience pride that comes from quality as well as quantity to work. † (161) Gantt believed that the management and laborer would be benefitted equally; employee would be paid higher wages leading to lower costs and the employer would have a greater output of production. Gantt Progress Chart As Gantt attempted to conquer the problems associated with management and laborer with the task and bonus system, he set out to devise a system to aid management in planning and coordinating workloads. After several attempts, Gantt pioneered a bar chart which was known to be the most valuable contribution to management of the generation. (163) The Gantt Progress Chart showed how work should be scheduled or directed through numerous operations, to completion. This chart allowed managers to distinguish whether a job was ahead or behind schedule, then management could take whatever means were necessary to correct the issue. The Gantt chart became a widely used efficient tool to support management in decision making and helped ensure that resources were being used proficiently. The Gilbreth’s Frank and Lillian Gilbreth were also followers of Frederick Taylor’s Scientific Management principles. Frank had greatly contributed to management thought with his invention of the motion studies. Frank began his studies while working as a bricklayer. He started examining the bricklaying process and began to eliminate the steps or motions from 18 to 6. He saw that people could do twice as much work with less effort if the job was done the right way. Frank looked to remove the motions that were unnecessary in jobs, in order to reduce fatigue and increase productivity. After his invention of the motion studies, he moved to focus his work on the construction business. He used the same methods to build homes, dams, factories, skyscrapers and even whole towns. (168) As Frank gained increasing popularity, his wife persuaded him to put his work into writing. His work consisted of three systems: the field, concrete and bricklaying system. The field system was mainly used in construction as an accounting system. This system showed costs, costs in relation to estimates and the total costs of each specific job. In addition, Frank used a suggestion program that enabled workers to obtain extra money for their suggestions on how to improve a job. This would ultimately lead to better service for the customers and additional jobs in the future. (169) Under the concrete system, Frank used competition to motivate the workers. He held contests to see how fast workers could complete a job. Lastly, was the bricklaying system, he used this system to effectively train the workers. He believed apprentices should learn the best way to do a job before standards are set. He believed the earlier methods of instruction from the experienced workers were inefficient and created too much waste. These systems showed how Frank rationalized work methods, improved productivity and ensured efficiency by motivating and correctly training workers by transferring their skills. As Frank started to expand his interests, he looked for better ways to identify inefficient motions. Frank came up with the brilliant idea to use a camera to examine the motions of workers. He then would eliminate the waste based on the analysis. Frank and Lillian also filmed workers attached with small electrical lights; when their movement was slowest they would see a bunch of dots, while they would see sporadic dots when their movement was at a faster pace. The use of camera to observe the movements of workers seemed to be more useful and accurate than Taylor’s use of the stopwatch. As time went by, Frank and Lillian started to detach from Taylor’s methods. Lillian went on to focus her thoughts on â€Å"The Psychology of Management. She studied the effects that work has on humans and held that successful management was determined by the man, not the work. While Lillian tried to determine the most effective and efficient approach to management, she had to compare the three styles that were created: traditional, transitory and scientific. Traditional management created anxiety by relying on rewards and punishment to motivate workers and essentially there was no mutuality of interest between management and worker. Transitory management was the short term style that was incomplete and ill directed before scientific management emerged. Essentially, According to the authors of The Evolution of Management Thought, Lillian believed that scientific management was the best style because it â€Å"promoted regular work, encouraged good personal habits, and fostered the physical, mental, moral, and financial development of workers. (174) Lillian recognized the human factor in work which led her to pioneer human resource management. This creation of human resource management was a significant advance of the times that led industries to obtain the best workers for the positions at hand by the scientific selection, training and placement of the workers. Frederick Taylor, Henry Gantt and Frank and Lillian Gilbreth contributed greatly to the scientific management movement. Close examination of management and workers led to new concepts that improved work methods and incentives, motivated workers, eliminated motions, reduced fatigue and increased production. All of these factors allowed for industries to become more efficient than ever before. Managers gained the proper tools and knowledge that enabled them to train, select and place workers where they were best suited. These concepts that were put into practice in the late 1800’s are still widely used today in the workplace.

Quantum Holism as Consequence of the Relativistic Approach to the Probl

Quantum Holism as Consequence of the Relativistic Approach to the Problem of Quantum Theory Interpretation ABSTRACT: In modern physics the common relational approach should be extended to the concepts of element and set. The relationalization of the concepts of element and set means that in the final analysis the World exists as an indivisible whole, not as a set (of one or another kind of elements). Therefore, we have to describe quantum systems in terms of potentialities and probabilities: since quantum systems cannot be analyzed completely into sets of elements, we can speak only of the potentialities of isolating elements and sets within their structure. On the other hand this quantum property of the world as an indivisible whole accounts for the astonishing logical properties of the structure of the potentialities of quantum systems which it brings forth. This has been confirmed by quantum-correlation experiments (A.Aspect and oth.). These effects have a relational nature, not a physical-causal or material one, and they are brought forth by the changes (resulting from measurement or physical interaction) in the structure of the relations of the mutually complementary sides of reality. One of these sides expresses an actually existing structure of the system as a real (and physically verifiable) but only relatively separable set, and the other expresses the sets of potentialities in it which arise from the astonishing property of finite non-analyzability of the system into elements and sets (i.e. by the quantum property of the world as an indivisible unit). Introduction Known physicist D.Bohm have successfully used the holistic idea in modern physics. (1) Besides that it is necessary to call reader's attention to the... ...system's wholeness and constitute the implicative-logical structure controlled by the wholeness phenomenon. The idea of the implicative-logical organization of the probability structure of a quantum system in the pure state and of the controlling role of the wholeness phenomenon (in the redistribution of probabilities depending on this or that real experiment) is confirmed by the results of quantum-correlation experiments (for example, A. Aspect's experiments). Notes (1) D.Bohm. Wholeness and the implicate order. L., 1984. (2) V.A.Fock. Uspekhi fizicheskikh nauk, , 66, 592 (1958) (foot-note on this page). (3). S. Kochen, Symposium of the Foundations of Modern Physics: 50 Years of the Einstein-Podolsky-Rosen Gedankenexperiment, (World Scientific Publishing Co., Singapore, 1985), pp. 151-69. (4). A.A.Grib, "Uspekhi fizicheskikh nauk", 142, 621(1984).

Equality for Race Essay

As a teenager growing up in the 1990’s, I have realized the overwhelming importance of racial equality and cooperation in our society. I strongly believe that the key to the success of America’s future is the breaking down of all racial barriers and working together as one, united nation to try to bring this country back to the land of true â€Å"equal† opportunity. These past few years have been trying times for open-mindedness for Americans. Witnessing the vicious beating of Rodney King, the riots that followed the King verdict where Reginald Denny was brutally and senselessly beaten, had the whole country on edge. The single biggest court case in this country’s history – that of O.J. Simpson – was blanketed with racial overtones. The verdict had the country almost divided over the decision. Now Louis Farrakhan is preaching controversial ideas and beliefs to millions of black men across the nation, creating tension among the races. These incidents only impose more obstacles in American society’s racial relations. But the best way to mend these wounds is to create an environment were all races and creeds can work and interact together every day, to better understand and relate to other cultures and their customs, and beliefs on a person-to-person basis. I recently was asked the question: when was the last time you discussed racism with someone of another race? One of my best friends is an African-American Metco student from Dorchester, and another is of Mexican-American decent. We have been friends for so long that we openly discuss racial problems all the time. But I wondered if this question was asked of the entire country how many people could comfortably and openly discuss their views on racism with a person of different race? I’m sure there are a lot of people who don’t have the same opportunity that I do. Creating a multicultural environment, especially at the college level, where you are exposed to so many unique ideas and people, is an excellent start to try to introduce people to others in a time when you are alone for the first time, in a foreign environment, and everyone is looking to make friends. If more people stop being ignorant and start using experience and the past as a teacher, they will see that all the fighting and intolerance doesn’t get anyone anywhere. We will see that in adverse times when people pull together, positive things are almost always the result. So I am anxiously hoping to be a positive influence in achieving a multiculturally aware student body, and maybe if more campuses make this issue a top priority the country will benefit as a whole.

Should Tourism Be Allowed in Antartica

Should Tourism be allowed in Antarctica? There is no doubt Antarctica is an incredible tourist destination. Visitor numbers have increased rapidly over the last few decades. During 1998-99, in the summer season, over 10,000 tourists visited Antarctica, compared with less than 2000, 19 years ago. This is not necessarily a good thing; what about all of the pollution people cause whilst travelling to Antarctica? This brings us to the question: Should Tourism be allowed in Antarctica?Some people think that tourism should be allowed in Antarctica. They think that people need to be educated about how Antarctica an extreme environment and climate. They think that we need to know what we are doing to the Earth; such as, we are spoiling their habitat by global warming because we are creating too much pollution, therefore creating the green house effect. It could be argued that because Antarctica is such a remote place we need to experience the different cultures, wild life and scenery.They al so believe that Antarctica has a magnificent wilderness with majestic mountains, glaciers, icebergs and abundant wildlife. Its remoteness, inaccessibility and severe climate add an element of adventure to a visit to Antarctica. On the other hand scientists want to go to Antarctica to find out so much more about it. They also carry out the kind of science in Antarctica, that cannot be done any were in the world; they also contribute to solving a global problem.Other people think that tourism should not be allowed in Antarctica because people Might introduce germs and diseases because when people don’t clean their boots they will get muddy and will pollute the water. When people are sick and they go too close to the animals they will give the diseases to them and the animals won’t survive. Also when humans are taken to Antarctica they might harm the animals there, for instance they will leave rubbish in animal habitats. They also might scare the animals with flash photog raphy.They also believe that people might trample penguins breeding areas therefore the number of penguins will go down and eventually the penguins will turn extinct. There are many worries about pollution in Antarctica as well. In the Gulf of Mexico there has been a huge oil spill in the ocean, what if that happened to Antarctica? All of the animals would die, if they keep drinking from the water. In approximately 10 years there will be a huge rubbish dump, because we are leaving too much rubbish in Antarctica. Although tour boats may give people more jobs they are leaving oo much waste in its path. Human Waste and leftover food scraps are usually thrown over the side of boats during tours. This is dangerous for the animals because they might eat it and they would most probably die. To conclude, I think that tourism should not be allowed in Antarctica unless they are scientist and going to preserve the content or to do research on Antarctica; but there has to be rule that you have to get permission from the government and you have to be based a certain amount of distance away from the animals main habitat.

Using a Mind Map for Reading Comprehension

Using a Mind Map for Reading Comprehension The use of Mind Maps in class is useful when working on all sorts of skills. For example,  students can use a Mind Map to quickly jot down the gist of an article they have read. Another great exercise is using Mind Maps to learn  vocabulary. Mind Maps provide a visual learning mechanism that will help students recognize relationships they may miss in a more linear type of activity. The act of mapping something out encourages the individual to create an internal retelling of the story. This type of approach will help students with essay writing skills, as well as better overall reading comprehension due to the 30,000 foot overview they will get.   For this example lesson, weve provided a number of variations on the use of Mind Maps for exercises. The lesson itself could easily be extended into homework activities and over multiple classes depending on how much of the artistic element you encourage students to provide.  For this lesson, we created a simple map as an example for an upper-level reading course using the novel Dont You Dare Read This, Mrs. Dunphrey by  Margaret Peterson Haddix.   Mind Map Lesson Plan Aim:  Reading review and comprehension of extensive reading materials Activity:  Creating a Mind Map asking students to create an overview of a story Level:  Intermediate to advanced Outline: Introduce the concept of a Mind Map by showing students Mind Maps posted online. Just go to Google and search on Mind Map youll find plenty of examples.Ask students what type of things would lend themselves to Mind Mapping. Hopefully, students will come up with all sorts of creative uses. If not, we suggest pointing to simple examples such as vocabulary about the home or job responsibilities.  As a class, create a Mind Map of the story you are currently working on.Start with the main character. Ask students to identify the main areas of that characters life. In this case the class chose  family, friends, work  and  school.Ask students about the particulars of each category. Who are the people? What events happen? Where does the story take place?  Once youve provided the basic outline, ask students to either draw the map on a piece of paper, or use Mind Mapping software (we recommend Free Mind, an open source program).Ask students to fill in the Mind Map noting the relations hips, main events, difficulties, etc., for each of the categories.   How deep you ask students to go into the story depends on what is being reviewed. For analysis, its probably best to keep things relatively simple. However, if you use this to review a chapter, individual character might run much deeper.At this point in the exercise, you can ask students to review the reading in a variety of ways. Here are some suggestions:Use the map to discuss the relationships between the characters, places, etc., to partners. Each student can choose one arm of the map to discuss at length.Use the map as a written activity by asking students to write an accompanying explanatory text to the map.Ask students to really dig into the details by mapping out  one or two arms of the map.Be artistic and provide sketches for their mind map.Speculate on the backgrounds of the relationships represented using modal verbs of probability.Focus in on grammar functions such as tenses by posing questions about the relationships in a variety of tenses.  Have students compare and contrast the maps they create.

History of British Newspapers Essay Example

History of British Newspapers Essay Example History of British Newspapers Essay History of British Newspapers Essay History of British Newspapers Britains press can trace its history back more than 300 years, to the time of William of Orange. Berrows Worcester Journal, which started life as the Worcester Postman in 1690 and was published regularly from 1709, is believed to be the oldest surviving English newspaper. William Caxton had introduced the first English printing press in 1476 and, by the early 16th century, the first news papers were seen in Britain. They were, however, slow to evolve, with the largely illiterate population relying on town criers for news. Between 1640 and the Restoration, around 30,000 news letters and news papers were printed, many of which can be seen today in the British Museum. The first regular English daily newspaper, the Daily Courant, was launched with the reign of Queen Anne in 1702. Timeline 1476William Caxton sets up the first English printing press in Westminster. 1549First known English newsletter: Requests of the Devonshyre and Cornyshe Rebelles. 1621First titled newspaper, Corante, published in London. 1649Cromwell suppressed all newsbooks on the eve of Charles Is execution. 1690Worcester Postman launched. In 1709 it starts regular publication as Berrows Worcester Journal, considered to be the oldest surviving English newspaper). 1702Launch of the first regular daily newspaper: The Daily Courant. 1709First Copyright Act; Berrows Worcester Journal, considered the oldest surviving English newspaper, started regular publication. 1712First Stamp Act; advertisement, paper and stamp duties condemned as taxes on knowledge. Stamford Mercury believed to have been launched. 1718Leeds Mercury started (later merged into Yorkshire Post). 1737Belfast News Letter founded (worlds oldest surviving daily newspaper). 748Aberdeen Journal began (Scotlands oldest newspaper now the Press Journal). 1772Hampshire Chronicle launched, Hampshires oldest paper. 1788Daily Universal Register (est. 1785) became The Times. 1791The Observer launched. 1835Libel Act; truth allowed as defence for first time in Britain. 1836The Newspaper Society founded. 1844The Southport Visiter first published. 1848The first issue of the Brechin Advertiser was published on Tuesday 3 October 1848. 1853Ormskirk Advertiser and Birkenhead News first published. 1855Stamp duty abolished. Daily Telegraph started as first penny national. Manchester Guardian, The Scotsman and Liverpool Post became daily. Shields Gazette is the first of 17 regional evenings founded this year. 1868Press Association set up as a national news agency. 1889First Official Secrets Act. 1905Harmsworth (then Northcliffe) bought The Observer. 1906Newspaper Proprietors Association founded for national dailies. 1907National Union of Journalists founded as a wage-earners union. 1915Rothermere launched Sunday Pictorial (later Sunday Mirror). 1922Death of Northcliffe. Control of Associated Newspapers passed to Rothermere. 1928Northcliffe Newspapers set up as a subsidiary of Associated Newspapers. Provincial Newspapers set up as a subsidiary of United Newspapers. 1931Audit Bureau of Circulations formed. 1936Britains first colour advertisement appears (in Glasgows Daily Record). 1944Iliffe took over BPM Holdings (including Birmingham Post). 1946Guild of British Newspaper Editors formed (now the Society of Editors). 1953General Council of the Press established. 1955Month-long national press strike. Daily Record acquired by Mirror Group. 1959Manchester Guardian becomes The Guardian. Six-week regional press printing strike. 1960sPhotocomposition and web-offset printing progressively introduced. 964The Sun launched, replacing Daily Herald. Death of Beaverbrook. General Council of the Press reformed as the Press Council. 1969Murdochs News International acquired The Sun and News of the World. 1976Nottingham Evening Post is Britains first newspaper to start direct input by journalists. 1978The Times and The Sunday Times ceased publication for 11 months. 1980Association of Free Newspap er founded (folded 1991). Regional Newspaper Advertising Bureau formed. 1981News International acquired The Times and the Sunday Times. 1983Industrial dispute at Eddie Shahs Messenger group plant at Warrington. 984Mirror Group sold by Reed to Maxwell (Pergamon). First free daily newspaper, the (Birmingham) Daily News, launched by husband wife team Chris Pat Bullivant. 1986News International moved titles to a new plant at Wapping. Eddie Shah launched Today, first colour national daily launched. The Independent launched. 1987News International took over Today. 1988RNAB folded. Newspaper Society launched PressAd as its commercial arm. Thomson launched Scotland on Sunday and Sunday Life. 1989Last Fleet Streetpaper produced by Sunday Express. 1990First Calcutt report on Privacy and Related Matters. Launch of The European (by Maxwell) and Independent on Sunday. 1991Press Complaints Commission replaced the Press Council. AFN folded. Death of Robert Maxwell (November). Management buy-out of Birmingham Post and sister titles. Midland Independent Newspapers established. 1992Management buy-out by Caledonian Newspapers of Lonrhos Glasgow titles, The Herald and Evening Times. 1993Guardian Media Group bought The Observer. UK News set up by Northcliffe and Westminster Press as rival news agency to the Press Association. Second Calcutt report into self-regulation of the press. 994Northcliffe Newspapers bought Nottingham Evening Post for ? 93m. News International price-cutting sparked off new national cover-price war. 1995Lord Wakeham succeeded Lord McGregor as chairman of the PCC. Privacy white paper rejected statutory press controls. Most of Thomsons regional titles sold to Trinity. Newsquest formed out of a Reed MBO. Murdoch closes Today (November). 1996A year of buyouts, mergers and re structuring in the regional press. Regionals win the battle over cross-media ownership (Broadcasting Act). Newspaper Society launches NS Marketing, replacing PressAd. 997Midland Independent Newspapers is bought by Mirror Group for ? 297 million. Human Rights and Data Protection bills are introduced. 1998Fourth largest regional press publisher, United Provincial Newspapers, is sold in two deals: UPN Yorkshire and Lancashire newspapers sold to Regional Independent Media for ? 360m and United Southern Publications sold to Southnews for ? 47. 5m. Southern Newspapers changes its name to Newscom, following acquisitions in Wales and the West (including UPN Wales in 1996). Death of Lord Rothermere. Chairmanship of Associated Newspapers passes to his son Jonathan Harmsworth. Death of David English, editor-in-chief of Daily Mail and chairman of the editors code committee. 1999Trinity merges with Mirror Group Newspapers in a deal worth ? 1. 3 billion. Newsquest is bought by US publisher Gannett for ? 904 million. Portsmouth Sunderland Newspapers is bought by Johnston Press for ? 266m. Major regional press groups launch electronic media alliances (eg, This is Britain, Fish4 sites. ) Freedom of Information bill introduced. Associated launches Londons free commuter daily, Metro. 2000Newscom is sold to Newsquest Media Group for ? 44m, Adscene titles are sold to Southnews (? 52m)and Northcliffe Newspapers, Belfast Telegraph Newspapers are sold by Trinity Mirror to Independent News Media for ? 300m, Bristol United Press is sold to Northcliffe Newspapers Group, and Southnews is sold to Trinity Mirror for ? 285m. Daily Express and Daily Star are sold by Lord Hollicks United News Media to Richard Desmonds Northern Shell. Launch of Scottish business daily Busine ss a. m. and more Metro daily frees. Newspaper Society launches internet artwork delivery system AdFast. Communications white paper published. 001RIM buys six Galloway and Stornaway Gazette titles, Newsquest buys Dimbleby Newspaper Group and Johnston Press buys four titles from Morton Media Group. UK Publishing Media formed. Sunday Business changes name to The Business and publishes on Sunday and Monday. 2002Johnston Press acquires Regional Independent Medias 53 regional newspaper titles in a ? 560 million deal. Northcliffe Newspapers Group Ltd acquires Hill Bros (Leek) Ltd. Queen attends Newspaper Society annual lunch. New PCC chairman, Christopher Meyer, announced. Draft Communications Bill published. The Sun and Mirror engage in a price war. 003Conrad Black resigns as chief executive of Hollinger International, owner of Telegraph group. Claverly Company, owner of Midland News Association, buys Guiton Group, publisher of regional titles in the Channel Islands. Archant buys 12 Lond on weekly titles from Independent News Media (December) and the remaining 15 the following month (January 04). Independent begins the shift to smaller format national newspapers when it launched its compact edition. Sir Christopher Meyer becomes chairman of the Press Complaints Commission. DCMS select committee chaired by Gerald Kaufman into privacy and the press. Government rejects calls for a privacy law. 2004Phillis Report on Government Communications published (January). Barclay Brothers buy Telegraph group and poach Murdoch Maclennan from Associated to run it. Kevin Beatty moves from Northcliffe Newspapers to run Associated Newspapers. Trinity Mirror sells Century Newspapers and Derry Journal in Northern Ireland to 3i. Tindle Newspapers sells Sunday Independent in Plymouth to Newsquest. The Times goes compact (November). 2005Johnston Press buys Score Press from EMAP for ? 155m. Launch of free Lite editions for London Evening Standard and Manchester Evening News. The Times puts up cover price to 60p, marking the end of the nationals’ price war. The Guardian moves to Berliner format after ? 80m investment in new presses. DMGT puts Northcliffe Newspapers up for sale; bids expected to open at ? 1. 2 billion. Johnston Press buys Scotsman Publications from Barclay Brothers for ? 160m. 2006DMGT sale of Northcliffe group aborted but DC Thomson acquires Aberdeen Press Journal. Trinity Mirror strategic review: Midlands and South East titles put up for sale. Growth of regional press digital platforms. Manchester Evening News city edition goes free. Government threat to limit Freedom of Information requests. Associated and News International both launch free evening papers in London during the autumn. 2007Archant Scotland acquired by Johnston Press. Northcliffe Media buys three regional newspaper businesses from Trinity Mirror; Kent Regional Newspapers, East Surrey and Sussex Newspapers and Blackmore Vale Publishing. Dunfermline Press Group acquires Berkshire Regional Newspapers from Trinity Mirror. Tindle Newspapers buys 27 local weekly newspapers from Trinity Mirror which retains its Midlands titles. The government abandons plans to tighten Freedom of Information laws and limit media access to coroners’ courts. Former Hollinger International chief executive Conrad Black is sentenced to six-and-a-half years in prison for fraud. Rupert Murdoch’s News Corporation buys Dow Jones, owner of the Wall Street Journal, appointing News International boss Les Hinton as chief executive. 2008The global economic downturn hit advertising revenues and shares of media companies fell sharply during the year. John Fry was announced as Tim Bowdler’s successor at Johnston Press in September. The Independent announced a plan to move to DMGT’s Kensington building to cut costs in November. The BBC Trust rejected plans for local video that would have a negative impact on regional titles in the same month following a sustained campaign by the NS. 2009Russian businessman Alexander Lebedev acquires the London Evening Standard from Daily Mail General Trust and the title is subsequently relaunched as a free newspaper. Baroness Peta Buscombe is appointed chairman of the Press Complaints Commission. 2010Britain officially emerges from the longest and deepest recession since the war. Lebedev acquires the Independent and Independent on Sunday from Independent News Media for a nominal fee of ? 1. Trinity Mirror acquires GMG Regional Media, publisher of 32 titles, from Guardian Media Group for ? 44. 8 million. News International erects paywalls around its online content for The Times and The Sunday Times. Eleven regional print titles are launched by seven publishers in the first six months of the year. Newly-elected coalition government announces it will look at the case for relaxing cross-media ownership rules and stop unfair competition from council newspapers. The Independent launches i, a digest newspaper to complement their main title, and the first daily paper to be launched in the UK in almost 25 years.

The Benefits of Writing Concisely - Proofread My Paper

The Benefits of Writing Concisely - Proofread My Paper The Benefits of Writing Concisely Despite popular belief, wordiness – using more words than necessary to make a point – doesn’t make a paper sound more intellectual. Rather, it clouds your ideas and detracts from the impact of your writing. Writing concisely, on the other hand, will improve your work by: Keeping your point focused Ensuring your arguments flow clearly Helping you stay within the word allowance of your assignments But how do you make sure your written work is always concise? Focus on Your Thesis Somewhere at the beginning of your paper, you should have a clear statement of your thesis. This will guide the rest of your paper, since every point you make should add to your argument. If something in your work is not relevant to your thesis, consider whether it needs to be there. Faster! Harder! Stronger! (aka Editing Ruthlessly) The first draft is only the starting point in writing a good academic paper. Once you’ve got everything down, re-read it carefully, looking for errors and considering potential improvements. In terms of readability, this will typically include eliminating unnecessary words, tightening sentence structures and making sure that each paragraph flows smoothly to the next. Avoid Redundancy and Repetition Beware of redundancy and repetition. Redundancy is when we use a phrase that includes additional terms for no reason: in â€Å"the car was green in color,† for instance, â€Å"in color† is redundant because we know that â€Å"green† usually refers to a color. Repetition, meanwhile, is the unnecessary inclusion of the same point twice. If you’ve already introduced a concept in your work, for example, there’s no need to reintroduce it later on. Cutting repetition can make your writing much more succinct. Words, Not Phrases Try not to use several words when one will do. For instance, the sentence: It was an experience that I found very interesting for many reasons and from which I learned a lot. Could be rewritten more concisely as: It was a fascinating and educational experience. Simply put, â€Å"fascinating† and â€Å"educational† are an economical way of saying â€Å"I found interesting for many reasons† and â€Å"from which I learned a lot† respectively. As such, the rewritten sentence is easier to read.

Workbook Summary for Individualized Education Programs Coursework - 1

Workbook Summary for Individualized Education Programs - Coursework Example The level of disability must be able to influence the learning ability. The eligibility test requires the statement on the current academic performance of the child indicating the effect of the disability on the learning 0progress of the child. IDEA 2002 emphasizes on the need for education providers to develop an IEP that conforms to the needs of every student who has specific needs  within  the eligibility tests and regulations of the state with regard to disability (Weishaar, 2001). All areas of suspected disability are evaluated by the school to see if they meet the threshold under the IDEA guidelines. After the evaluation, the school meets the respective parents to undertake the review of the collected disability results and influence the students’ learning. It is the collective responsibility of the school, and parents to determine whether the student requires significant education services. Thereafter, a team is constituted to develop the IEP plan. The team will use the results obtained in the evaluation stage to draft a relevant IEP that responds to the needs (Weishaar, 2001) of the  intended  students. The team developing the IEP should be made up of the student’s parents or guardians, case manager or exceptional education teacher, the student. In addition, at least of the regular education teachers, a person with knowledge about the availability of the school resources can support the intended learning (Weishaar, 2001). The team then drafts the plan by initially identifying the student’s personal information. The team then uses the full individual evaluation (FIE), in order to establish the current level of the student’s academic performance and specific academic services needed by the student. The evaluation information is significant in identifying the academic strength of the student. The functional needs of the student must be

Thyroid Cancer Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Thyroid Cancer - Research Paper Example Overall prevalence of cancer in nodule is 5-15% with reportedly higher occurrence rates in female (representing ratio of 3:1) and older patients. National Cancer Institute reports about 56,000 cases of thyroid cancer in U.S each year (Norman, 2009). Thyroid carcinomas represent less than 1% of all human cancers with global incidence rates from 0.5-10% per 100,000 populations (IAEA, 2009) Risk Factors: Studies indicate that exposure to radiation, iodine intake, family history of thyroid cancer, chronic goiter etc are suspected a risk factors for thyroid cancer (IAEA, 2009). Clinical Presentation: Thyroid gland is actively involved in metabolic functions of the body and therefore, patients with thyroid malfunction present with wide range of symptoms. Generally the enlargements of gland either diffuse or asymptomatic hard rapidly growing nodule is major sign of thyroid cancer. However, the evaluation of these nodules as malignant or benign is major concern (IAEA, 2009). Other symptoms m ay include cough, difficulty in swallowing, swelling in neck region, hoarsened voice, thyroid gland enlargement, morphological abnormality or calcification of thyroid etc. History and physical examination: On physical examination, a hard rapidly growing nodule with swollen lymph nodes is observed. ... Radiological imaging of thyroid can be done through high resolution ultrasound, thin section CT scan or MRI. Yet, the initial evaluation should be focused on clinical history, physical examination, serum hormone levels further supported by FNA (IAEA, 2009). Thyroid ultrasound is widely used technique in diagnostics and reveals characteristics such as micro-calcifications, hypoechogenicity, irregular borders and intranodal blood flow etc. These patterns increase the suspicion of malignancy; however, fine needle aspiration cytology (FNAC) should be utilized to confirm diagnosis. FNAC is suggestively performed on thyroid nodule of 1 cm on clinical presentation and family history (Pacini et al., 2010). Other tests to evaluate and classify thyroid cancer include thyroid biopsy and laryngoscopy. Types of Thyroid cancer: Thyroid cancers can be classified into epithelial or non-epithelial. Epithelial malignant neoplasms originate from follicular or parafollicular C-cells, whereas, sarcomas a nd malignant lymphomas constitute non-epithelial tumors. 1. Follicular carcinoma is malignant tumors of epithelial cells that exhibit follicular cell differentiation. These represent about 25-40% of thyroid cancers. Follicular carcinomas can be classified into a. minimally invasive carcinomas: excellent prognosis with 95% recovery rate. b. Widely invasive carcinomas present excessive invasion of neoplasm of surrounding tissue. Prognosis is good with 20% reported mortality rate (IAEA, 2009). 2. Insular or poorly differentiated carcinomas arise from follicular cells rapidly converting into aggressive neoplasm which later metastasizes to local and distant lymph nodes. Poor prognosis and higher mortality

Sociology - Wal-Mart Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Sociology - Wal-Mart - Essay Example Eventually, the only thing that is left is Wal-Mart, and the people have no choice left but to shop there. This can cause an effect similar to a monopoly in a small town. People may have no stores for miles except for Wal-Mart because ever place has had to close because it couldn't compete with Wal-Mart. This then leaves people with no choice BUT to shop at Wal-Mart, and this only continues the vicious cycle elsewhere in other small towns. This can cause devastation effects on a town's economy. Wal-Mart then becomes the ONLY major player still in the economy of a town. This not only puts small stores out of jobs, but gets rid of the basis for all business, competition. This can then lead to Wal-Mart business policies becoming lax, as they no longer have to compete and now are the only game in town. The entire point of business is to have competition, but Wal-Mart makes sure to destroy all competition it can have early on. Wal-Mart also has many problems that go deeper than just the problems after the store comes in. If everybody who shopped at Wal-Mart sat down and watched this movie about how bad Wal-Mart treats its employees, and the poor wages that the corporation tries to pass by. Examples are given of major sexism against women, and how unfairly the Wal-Mart Corporation treats women.

Nursing Shortage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Nursing Shortage - Essay Example he trend of nursing shortage in the United States of America, forecasts suggests that the situation is only going to worsen unless steps to arrest the decline in the attractiveness of the nursing profession and reduced the stress on nursing professionals are taken on an urgent basis (Buerhas, Donelan, Ulrich, Norman & Dittus, 2005). The nursing shortage in the United States of America is a matter of serious concern, for according to Shirey, 2006, the United States of America is in the midst of one of the most crippling nursing shortages in its history, with the projections of this shortfall in nursing to rise to twenty percent of the demand for nursing professionals by 2020, which in sheer numbers means that there will be a shortfall of as many as 800,000 registered nurses, which is a staggering figure. These figures on the shortage of nurses experienced in every area of nursing care requirement is bound to rise given that nearly sixty percent of the current nursing professionals may retire by 2009. The possibility of the shortfall in nursing professionals being made good through new registered nurses (RN) coming through the education programs for nursing in Iowa is dismal given that the admissions to the nursing programs in Iowa have been dropping rapidly for more than a decade. This is the grim reality of the nursing shortage in Iowa (Nursing Shortage Fact Sheet). The shortage of nurses in Iowa has implications on health care in Iowa. For the healthcare sector it means that the quality of health care provided to healthcare seekers in Iowa is likely to be deficient, affecting the standards of health care in Iowa. To the medical professionals the shortage of nursing implies that some of the functions in providing treatment and management of diseases normally handed over to nursing professionals will shift to them increasing their workload. To the citizens of Iowa the shortage of nurses means that there will be nursing care will not measure up to their

The U.S. Supreme Court decision on the Arizona immigration law Research Paper

The U.S. Supreme Court decision on the Arizona immigration law - Research Paper Example Governors across the state and lawmakers introduced many immigration bills. The law required non-citizens to carry authorization papers which gave Arizonans to sue state and localities for non compliance. The Arizona law specifically drew the greatest national attention due to its racial profiling2. Meanwhile, the Supreme Court released an order that invalidated most sections of the Arizona immigration law. It was declared a success for Obama administration, a challenge for the constitutionality of the law. A number of issues were considered invalid and unconstitutional3. The congress specified the type of aliens to be evicted from the United States following laid down procedures. A brief by former commissioner of the United States immigration and naturalization services covers some aspects concerning alien eviction. According to him, aliens are subject to eviction if they could not be admitted at the time of entry or have had committed certain crimes. Eviction is civil and not criminal. The officials of the federal government have a voice on what credits an eviction. Aliens too have the right to seek asylum and other permit to remain in the country or leave without official eviction. Alien workers supporting their families are les likely to pose threat and are allowed to stay on humanitarian grounds. Returning an alien back to his country is also considered inappropriate regardless of whether they have committed crimes or have not met the admission requirements4. Unlike the Arizona law on field preemption, the federal law provides guidelines for alien registration and punishment for refusal. The aliens within the state borders are kept on track by a comprehensive and strong system. The Arizona law ignored the basic rules of field preemption that nations are banned from entering an area preserved by the federal government itself. Also,

Nursing Shortage Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Nursing Shortage - Essay Example he trend of nursing shortage in the United States of America, forecasts suggests that the situation is only going to worsen unless steps to arrest the decline in the attractiveness of the nursing profession and reduced the stress on nursing professionals are taken on an urgent basis (Buerhas, Donelan, Ulrich, Norman & Dittus, 2005). The nursing shortage in the United States of America is a matter of serious concern, for according to Shirey, 2006, the United States of America is in the midst of one of the most crippling nursing shortages in its history, with the projections of this shortfall in nursing to rise to twenty percent of the demand for nursing professionals by 2020, which in sheer numbers means that there will be a shortfall of as many as 800,000 registered nurses, which is a staggering figure. These figures on the shortage of nurses experienced in every area of nursing care requirement is bound to rise given that nearly sixty percent of the current nursing professionals may retire by 2009. The possibility of the shortfall in nursing professionals being made good through new registered nurses (RN) coming through the education programs for nursing in Iowa is dismal given that the admissions to the nursing programs in Iowa have been dropping rapidly for more than a decade. This is the grim reality of the nursing shortage in Iowa (Nursing Shortage Fact Sheet). The shortage of nurses in Iowa has implications on health care in Iowa. For the healthcare sector it means that the quality of health care provided to healthcare seekers in Iowa is likely to be deficient, affecting the standards of health care in Iowa. To the medical professionals the shortage of nursing implies that some of the functions in providing treatment and management of diseases normally handed over to nursing professionals will shift to them increasing their workload. To the citizens of Iowa the shortage of nurses means that there will be nursing care will not measure up to their

Mobile Phones Development Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Mobile Phones Development - Essay Example Contrary to digital standards, in 1G, the voice is merely modulated to frequency equal to or above 150 MHz (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 36, 2000). Following 1G was 2G or second generation, which was more efficient than 1G in three important ways. First, as mentioned before, 2G worked on digital signals rather than analog signals. Second, the 2G system s were far more effective then analog in that they allowed for way higher levels of penetration. Finally and most importantly, 2G brought with it, data service beginning from SMS messaging. Next comes the third generation or 3G, which refers to standards specified by ‘International Mobile Telecommunications’' (Hamill & Lasen, 41, 2008). This evolved version offers services like wide-area wireless, mobile internet, video calls, and mobile TV. According to IMT conditions, 3G system provides minimum 200 Kbits/s data rate (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development, 36, 2000). Current rel eases of this generation of mobile phones provide broadband access to other accessories like laptop and smart phones. A study of this progressive change in the industry reveals that a new generation of mobile phone appears every ten years. Each generations brings with it new bands of frequency, faster data rates and irrevocable transmission technology. Currently, WiMAX is considered the 4G or fourth generation of the mobile phone industry (Harper & Buress, 119, 2008). This newest update promises IP based mobile broadband to laptops and smart phones, gaming and streamed multimedia. â€Å"Mobile phones have undoubtedly revolutionized the communication industry in every possible way† (Hamill & Lasen, 41, 2008). Gone are the days when people would wait endlessly for someone to return to their homes to talk to them. Mobile phones today bring everyone together, connecting everyone to the virtual world of information, day in and day out. One way mobile phones have affected telecommu nications is that no one now uses telephones. Although marketing research analysts do not agree that rapid growth in mobile industry will result in collapse of landline usage, there is a little reason to believe otherwise. One reason for disagreeing is the expanding growth of VoIP, Skype, and Google voice over the past few years. For instance, Australia witnesses the growth in VoIP market by 3% a month (Harper & Buress, 119, 2008). VoIP attracts this large number of market because of the same service of conventional landlines offered at reduced costs. Many people argue that connection of phone to internet is not smart enough since call drops every time the connection fails. However, the modern fiber-optic internet provides more than 95% efficiency, which makes the connection quality equal to that offered by traditional landlines (Harper & Buress, 119, 2008). The increase in drop of landline usage has an important implication. Since there is no one centralized directory for mobile ph one numbers, the risk of harassing-on-phone and violation of privacy increases. This also comes down as a bane for telemarketers who now find it difficult to get through o potential customers since the caller ID’s are available in most cell phones. Another way in which mobile phones has affected communication industry is through its ability to bring everything together under one roof. Mobile phones are a blend of TV, laptop, tape recorder, IPod, camera, video recorder (Horst & Miller, 30, 2006). Instead of carrying all these gadgets separately, all one needs

Chapters 15 20 Questions Answers Essay Example for Free

Chapters 15 20 Questions Answers Essay 1. In Chapter 15, Amir meets with the dying Rahim Khan. Where are they? Peshawar, Pakistan 2. What does Amir say about cliches? Why does Amir use the cliche about an elephant in the room to describe his meeting with Rahim Khan? They are usually dead on. The elephant is the truth about Rahim Khan’s condition – he is dying and doesn’t have much time left. 3. Afghanistan has been seized by what political group in Chapter 15? Taliban 4. In Chapter 16, Rahim tells us what happened to Hassan. What has happened? Where is he living? Hassan went to live in a village just outside Bamiyan where. Rahim Khan finds Hassan, who tells him that Ali was killed by a landmine. Rahim Khan asks Hassan and his wife, Farzana, to live with him. Hassan at first refuses, but agrees after learning of Baba’s death. Their first baby was a stillborn girl. Hassan’s mother, Sanaubar, returns to the home, starving and ill. Hassan and his wife nurse his mother back to health. She in turn delivers Farzana’s son, Sohrab. Sanaubar dies when Sohrab is four. 5. Who is Farzana? Who is Sohrab? Farzana is Hassan’s wife. Sohrab is their son. 6. What happened in 1998 by the Taliban in Mazar-i-Sharif ? The Taliban massacred many Hazaras in Mazar-i-Sharif. 7. In Chapter 17, Rahim gives Amir a letter from Hassan, who wrote it six months before. What is the tone of this letter? How does Amir react? Hassan is the same old Hassan; a loyal friend who is concerned about Amir. Hassan wrote the letter with excitement and pride. Hassan says he would like to see Amir again. Rahim Khan reveals, however, that Hassan and his wife were murdered by the Taliban a month after the letter was written. Their son, Sohrab, is now living in an orphanage in Kabul. 8. In Chapter 18, Amir finds out that both Hassan and his wife were shot by the Taliban while trying to protect Babas house, as a result, orphaning their son. Rahim tells Amir it is his job to find Sohrab in Karteh-Seh, Afghanistan, and take him to an orphanage in Peshawar, Pakistan. What is Amirs reaction? Do you think Rahims dying wish is unfair? Why or why not? Amir’s reaction is of shock and anger. He doesn’t understand why no one told him this before. Rahim’s wish is not unfair – this is how Amir will remove the guilt and pay back Hassan for what Amir never did in the alleyway years ago. 9. How does the cliche, like father, like son mentioned on page 238, relate to Baba and Amir? Baba and Amir were more alike than he’d ever known. â€Å"We had both betrayed the people who would have given their lives for us. And with that came this realization: that Rahim Khan has summoned me here to atone not just for my sins but for Baba’s too. † (209) 10. What clues hint at the secret that is revealed in Chapter 17-18? Baba had always been so close to Hassan and it makes sense now why he loves Hassan so much. (forgiveness of â€Å"theft†, cleft lip, threatened Amir over the â€Å"new servants† comment, bought the same gifts for Hassan and Amir (kite) – treated them equally, wishes Hassan was here (in America), etc.) 11. In Chapter 19, Farid is engaged to drive Amir from Peshawar to Afghanistan. Describe his first impression of Amir. When Farid said, Youve always been a tourist here, you just didnt know it, (page 245), what did he mean? What is Farids impression of emigrant Afghans who return to visit Afghanistan? Many are shocked at the changes in Afghanistan. They are like tourists in the country, considering the many horrible changes that have taken place. Farid believes that Amir has always been a tourist. Amir has only known a better Afghanistan. Afghanis only come back to sell their land and leave again. 12. What realization does Amir come to in Chapter 19? Amir realizes his life has been a lie all along. Baba favored Hassan in the past – Amir realizes this as a sign that Hassan is his half-brother. He also realizes he must leave to help Sohrab right away before he talks himself out of going. This was his last chance at redemption. (195) 13. In Chapter 20, Amir sees Kabul for the first time since leaving. Describe what he sees. Amir is shocked by the state of Afghanistan. On arriving in Kabul he discovers it has been severely damaged by twenty years of war. The Taliban patrol the streets looking for people to punish. Amir is advised to avoid even looking at them. Amir feels pain and sadness at what he sees. 14. In Chapter 20, the director of the orphanage, Zaman, tells Amir that Sohrab was taken by a Taliban official who takes children, usually girls, about once a month for his sexual pleasure. The official gave Zaman a great deal of cash. How does Zaman defend his actions? He has so many other children he must take care of. If he were not there, they would starve and die. If Zaman refuses, it could destroy the orphanage and save others from being taken and/or killed. The money also provides for their needs (i. e. food. ).

Youth Subcultures And Its Influence On Youth Media Essay

Youth Subcultures And Its Influence On Youth Media Essay About: This report intends to analyze the complex relationship between media and youth subculture and argues that subcultures can reproduced and constructed through the media. It therefore, states that the national media should take responsibility in the discourses that are used to represent youth groups and youth subcultures as they impact on the activities of broader youth communities worldwide. The cultural universe of young people is a complex and dynamic one (White, 1999) and there has always been a tendency among youth researchers to investigate the significant social changes that are being revealed through the experiences of contemporary youth (Leccardi Ruspini, 2006). Some of the earliest sociological researches on youth can be linked to the emergence of new forms of consumptions and distinct youth cultures that began to rise in the late 1950s. The changes in youth at this era were highly visible through music and fashion the young populations were consuming. This was viewed both as a result of the increase time available for leisure and personal resources (Leccardi Ruspini, 2006) as well as an attempt to create some symbolic meaning for self (White, 1999). In times of high unemployment where youth were caught in between the ideology of spectacular consumption promoted by the mass media and the traditional ideology of capitalism and the meritocratic work led to a pro liferation of empirical studies across a wide range of diverse issues from homelessness to unemployment, youth crime to street gang violence that engages in research relevant to both empirical and theoretical matters in order to stretch the conceptual boundaries in the contemporary society (White, 1993). Youth subcultures can be viewed as a response to the interaction between these different areas. This response is seen by some as an identity seeking reaction between resistance to consumerism created by the production based Puritanism and the new hedonism of post war consumption (White, 1993). This paper looks into the contemporary youth subcultures and the media discourse used in the representation of these subcultures. It is argued that such negative representations of youth subcultures would result in the popularization and re enforcement of activities rather than limiting or controlling such deviant behaviors and thereby confirming the labeling of a demonized and at risk youth groups. Further, reports supports the idea that the media interventions in crime and social problem areas can lead to misplaced reactive political resources in mythic rather than real social problem areas resulting in amplified and exacerbated social problems generating moral panics (White, 1999). A culture can be defined as designs for living that constitute peoples way of life (Macionis Plummer, 2008:128). The five components of culture identified by Macionis and Plummer (2008: 130) include; symbols, language, values, norms and material culture. Culture has several, often contradictory meanings that carries ambiguity that can be traced in its different uses throughout history (Brake, 1985). While the classical perspective views culture as a standard of excellence (high culture), others view culture as a way of life which expresses certain meanings and values attached with a particular way of life known as the low culture'(Williams, 1961, p. 57). It is this conceptualisation of low culture that is central to the development of subcultures as an analytical concept (Brake, 1985). Subcultures can be defined as a cultural pattern that set apart some segment of a societys population (Macionis Plummer, 2008: 139) or a social group which is perceived to deviate from the normative ideals of adult communities (Thornton, 1995: 2). The earliest use of subcultural theories within sociology can be linked to its application as a subdivision of a national culture (Gordon, 1947). Culture in this context was viewed as learned behaviour with emphasis on the effects of socialisation within the cultural subgroups of a pluralist society (Brake, 1985). In most of the Western world, studies of youth subcultures have been dominated by a tradition associated with the 1970s work of the Centre of Contemporary Cultural Studies, University of Birmingham, England (Thornton, 1995). The Birmingham subcultural studies tend to banish media and commerce from their definition of authentic culture seen media and commerce as incorporating subcultures into the hegemony and effectively dismantling them (Hedbige, 1978). Chicago School sociologists on the other hand were concerned on researching empirical social groups by taking precedence over their elaboration of theory and were mainly focused on the shadier recesses of polite society (Thornton, 1995). This report will look at subcultures as cultures that are labelled directly or indirectly by the media with a problematic authenticity and as media and commerce integral to the authentication of its cultural practices. Supporting this, A.K. Cohen states that a major determinant of subcultures among th e youth as what people do depending upon the problems they contended with (Cohen, 1955, p.51). Cultural theorists argue that what it means to be young should be seen in the context of its cultural significance indicating that it is the context of cultural significance that makes been young so distinctive and not the structural focus of society (Alan, 2007). That is, the context the youth are exposed to and the issues that their exposures carry play a significant role in the construction of a youths culture. When understanding the conflicts surrounding young people and the way they use public space, the media plays a central role by constituting and shaping the principal form of the public sphere and by gathering and distributing important public information (Thompson, 1994 in Sercombe, 1999). One may argue that there is no certain measure of the direct effects of media coverage on the public. However, there are often negative and powerful cultural effects of media produced by the constant flow of its commercialized imaginary fictions and stereotypical coverages that socially construct a moral and narrative set of offerings upon which the youth attempt to build their identities on (White, 1993). Not only in building identities, the youth tend to use these social constructions by the media also as a measure for their achievements and personal worth by simply deriving an identity from a set of meanings drawn on the basis of media constructed stimulations instead of their local experiences (Baudrillard, 1983). It is important to note that the notion of identities are constructed across and by differences, and the social construction of youth identities though historically varied is tightly bound with the media representations made available at the time (White,1999). Therefore, we can argue that media is a critical component of the development and maintenance of the representation of young people which often feeds into the fears and negative attitude surrounding the presence of young people in public space as problematic or threatening (Sercombe, 1999). Moral panics in relation to youth, music and subculture are not uncommon in the news and other current media (Goode Ben-Yehuda, 2008, pp. 124-145 in Journal of Media Culture). Most cities in Australia like many other cities around the world housed for a large number of subcultural activities ranging from skateboarders occupying the steps and benches in the Melbourne streets to Goths congregating the inner city suburbs (Gelder, 2007). It also has a number of drag night clubs, gay and lesbian bars, a remarkable graffiti subculture; in which Melbourne has been claimed as a stencil graffiti capital (Smallman Nyman, 2005). Australia has several times witnessed its teenage subcultures clash in the streets; like the Mods and Sharpies in August 1966 (Sparrow Sparrow, 2004: 73-77). Stan Cohens classic Folk Devils and Moral Panics (1980) and the centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies Policing the Crisis (Hall et al. 1978) both indicate how mainstream media contributes to the public anxiety about youth subcultures and youth groups that are deemed to be deviant. Cohen, in his work looks at the development of conflict between mods and rockers, in a British seaside town, and particularly the escalation of conflict that arose as a result of the medias representation of these events. He argues that the media were responsible for amplifying the perception of deviance arising from a few of small-scale disturbances, which ultimately led to an escalated interventions from the police and judiciary, with the demonization and over-typification of young people involved in the mod or rocker styles. Similarly in Australia Cunneen et al. 1989, carried out a study on the disturbances at the Bathurst motorcycle races concluding that it was the over representation of the small di sturbances that led to the large scale conflicts and that the press concentrated on authority opinion while sensationalizing the material published (Cunneen et al., 1989). When analysing the literature published on the media representations of youth and youth subcultures it is evident that communications media create subcultures in the process of naming them and drawing boundaries around them in the act of describing them (Thonrton, 1995). The way media is inextricably involved in the meaning making and organization of youth subcultures will be discussed through the analysis of the representations of many recent incidents related to youth subcultures, particularly the ravers, Goths and Emo subcultures. The rave subculture emerged worldwide in the late 1980s as a musical subculture and was a phenomenon in the area that attempted to invert the traditional rock n roll authenticity by remixing and creating a cutting edge disk culture with a warehouse party format and was established in Chicago, Detroit and across Britain (Thornton, 1995:4). Soon groups of young people were clustered in sites conventionally aligned with musical performance to listen and dance to electronic dance music played by djs in Sydneys alternative rock scene Unlike other musical subcultures such as alternative rock scene where performances generally took place in formal environments such as pubs and clubs the raves in Australian cities began to use spaces such as old warehouses, factories and train stations for their activities (Gibson Pagan, 2006). Since the late 1980s rave culture worldwide has increased their members and was diversified and fragmented in many aspects becoming more contradictory with various s ubcultures emerging such as the Doofs, Drum and Bass and Happy hard core. Mean while controversies and public moral panics were starting to generate over the diverged more politicized illegal party culture that were shifting itself from the mainstream (Gibson Pagen, 2006). Associations were made between these part scenes and illegal drugs such as ecstasy by the media providing the basis for a moral panic. Ravres were described as new age hippies where their activities summed up to no sex, but drugs and rock roll (Benette, 1999). Dance parties in Sydney eventually became associated with tropes of youth deviance and illegality making the rave space in the public consciousness as a site beyond the domain of mainstream, and thereby causing strong reactions from the public and a need for increased control over their events (Gibson Pagen, 2006). A major shift in the perception of the public of youth subcultures could be related to the ecstasy related death of teenager Anna Woods from Sy dney at an Apache party in 1995. Her death was magnified within the media creating an unprecedented wave of media attention and public panic. With headlines such as Ecstasy agony and Ecstasy secret world running on the front pages for nearly two weeks, dramatically altering not only the rave culture but the perception of youth subcultures as a whole (See Sydney Herald Sun, 4/3/2007). The initial response of sympathy by the public to the incident soon turned into fear and anger that progressed from tension and social anxiety to a full blown social and political crisis (McRobbie, 1994) with scapegoating not only the ravers but creating fear against many youth subcultures (see Daily Telegraph, 27/3/2007:73). The death of Anna was interpreted as a symptom of the malaise affecting many young Australians (Daily Telegraph, 5/11/1995:8), with the NSW state government taking actions to close down clubs and bars which have promoted drugs in parties (Gibson Pagen, 2006). For a few months in 2007, the dangers of emo and computer use were significant themes in Australian newspaper coverages (Phillipoy, 2009). Emo is an abbreviation of the terms emocore and emotional hardcore which is a musical subgenre of punk rock music, characterised by emotional or personal themes. They adopt a look that includes black stovepipe jeans, dyed black hair and side-parted long fringes, which might merely have been one of the many tribes (Bennett, 1999) that characterise this contemporary youth culture(Phillipoy, 2009). Following the deaths of Melbourne teenagers, Jodie Gater, Stephanie Gestier and Carly Ryan in 2007, over an approximately five months period the media portrayed the two separate incidents linking the suicide and the murder to the emo subculture and to the social networking site MySpace, presenting both as dangerous and worrying developments in contemporary youth culture (Phillipoy, 2009). These media discourses surrounding the deaths included many features of moral panic uncluding a build-up of concern disproportionate to real risk of harm (see Goode Ben-Yehuda, 2002, pp.33-41). While the emo youth were viewed as straightforward folk devil (Cohen, 1972) or the enemy, the problem of emo was also framed as a product of much broader problems of youth culture (Goode Ben-Yehuda, 2002). The connections between emo and the deaths of these young girls were tenuously published over the mass media and was seen as symptomatic of what John Hartley (1998) describes in the context of reporting o n young people more generally as a profound uncertainty in the textual system of journalism about where the line that defines the boundary of the social should be drawn by the broader groups of non-subculturaly affiliated youth. The result of this according to Phillipoy, is a cultural thinking out loud (Hartley, 1998) where broader cultural anxiety are expressed and explored that can be described as anxiety about disclosure. The newspaper coverages on the deaths focused on the dangers of young peoples disclosures that made them inaccessible to adult authority that otherwise could have prevented the tragedies. Though some of these concerns were connected to the specificities of emo subcultural expression, with excessive emotions on display and the enigma associated with subcultural imagery respectively, they were on the whole linked to a broader problem in contemporary youth culture that was seen to apply to all young people, irrespective of any subcultural affiliation. The expressio ns of anxieties that the private lives of young people were becoming increasingly unknowable to adult authorities, and, hence, that youth culture itself was increasingly unknowable were popular statements made by the media (Phillipoy, 2006). Reportings such as bizarre teenage goth and emo world world constructed both as dangerous (in the sense that her apparent involvement in subcultural activities was presented as disturbing and something that put her at risk of harm) and impenetrable (in the sense that subcultural imagery was understood not simply as harmful but also as bizarre). In conclusion, the representations of young people in the media directly or indirectly depend on the interest of the newspapers and the discourse of its source. Language used by these media allows painting young people in different colors (Sercombe, 1999) and as youth subcultures are prime fare for the news media as in terms of news value they are both exotic and familiar (White, 1993) media and youth subcultures have a complex and symbolic relationship where young people are devoted consumers and producers of media and engage with media in the approval and adaptation of subcultural forms for their own context. Therefore, many of the subcultures can be argued to be reproduced and constructed through the media (White, 1999). The mainstream media however tend to represent youth subcultures mythologically as they often attempts to represent not the real world but the world that suits the advertisers, owners and the government. This leads to the constant stereotyping, reinforcing and exa ggerating issues, particularly in relation to the youth (White, 1993). Youth was portrayed within the media as the mindless hedonism of lost youth and were categorized as a careless generation that was only concerned with seeking pleasure and satisfaction from personal risk taking and drug use (Brown, 2005 in Allan 2007). By constructing notions of deviance and illegality, commercial media not only position youth and youth subcultures but are implicated in defining authentic underground activities that further strengthen subcultural practices that are deemed deviant (Gibson Pagan, 2006). Therefore, it is clear that media have been and is today, a major influence in fuelling and reinforcing perceptions of problem youth. Subcultures are constructed and stereotyped by the media as deviant and the media representations linked to the issues around subcultures have created an image of uncaring, hedonistic and self centered youth (Alan, 2007). Hence, this report suggest that the media is directly or indirectly responsibility for the fuelling and reinforcing of such deviant activities that they have constructed aligned to youth subcultures and that youth subcultures are a social construction mainly influenced by the national mass media. Therefore, the national media, particularly newspapers as the most commo nly used news media has a responsibility in the a discourses that are used to represent youth groups and youth subcultures as it carries an impact on the broader youth communities worldwide.

Satan Essay -- essays research papers fc

Satan Satan, Lucifer, Beelzebub, Son of the Morning, the Devil has many names. The Devil is a powerful and mysterious being. Who is Satan? Who believes in him? Where did he come from? There are many questions that I had about Satan at the beginning of this report. Where did Satan come from? According to the Christian Bible it is clearly taught that the Devil and the other demons are spiritual or angelic creatures created by God in a state of innocence, and that they became evil by their own act. It is added that man sinned by the suggestion of the Devil, and that in the next world the wicked shall suffer eternal punishment with the Devil. Satan and the other demons are part of an angelic creation, and their natural powers do not differ from those of the angels who remained faithful. Like the other angels, they are pure spiritual beings without any body. What was the fall? Who was Satan before the fall? The biblical book Ezekiel says that Satan was the perfect angel. You (referring to Satan) were the seal of resemblance, full of wisdom, and perfect in beauty. You were in the pleasures of the paradise of God; every precious stone was thy covering; the Sardis, the topaz, and the jasper, the chrysolite, and the onyx, and the beryl, the sapphire, and the carbuncle, and the emerald; gold the work of your beauty: and your pipes were prepared in the day that you were created. You a cherub stretched out, and protecting, and I set you in the holy mountain of God, you have walked in the midst of the stones of fire. You were perfect in your wave from the day of creation, until iniquity was found in you (Ezekiel 28:12-15). The prophets, Isaiah, and Ezekiel, thought that Lucifer held a very high rank in the heavenly hierarchy. God’s right hand man in a sense. Some theologians say that the Devil was the foremost of all the angels. Ezek iel described Satan as the â€Å"model of perfection†, â€Å"full of wisdom†, and â€Å"perfect in beauty.† Why did the Devil fall? As Ezekiel 28:12 tells us, Satan was perfect when he was created. The Bible also tells us that humanity was created a little lower than the angels. Yet neither Satan nor any of the other angels were given rule over the earth. Rather, Adam, a being Satan must have considered less than himself, was given this power. It's easy to see why Sa... ... where the beast and the false prophet had been thrown. They will be tormented day and night for ever and ever. (Rev 20:10) Eternal fire beyond the grave was prepared for "the devil and his angels". Then he will say to those on his left, Depart from me, you who are cursed, into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels (Mat 25:41) (Bryan T. Huie). The same fire that will claim the devil and his angels will also torment people who die in a spiritually lost condition. And so sayeth the Lord. Bibliography W.H. KENT, The Catholic Encyclopedia, Volume IV. Copyright  © 1908 by Robert Appleton Company. Britannica, The New Encyclopedia, Chicago: 1989. 15th edition. vol. 7, p. 542. Bryan T. Huie, Revised: March 23, 2001. SATAN, THE ADVERSARY OF MANKIND http://www.aristotle.net/~bhuie/satan.htm. Biblical quotes taken from; NKJV. American Bible Society, Copyright  © 1989.

The Impact of Restaurant Reviews on Customer Decisions

The Impact of Restaurant Reviews on Customer Decisions Table of contents 1. |LITERATURE REVIEW †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. |3| |1. 1. |Restaurant Review Systems Context †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.. |3| |1. 2. |Overview of Themes †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦. |4| |1. 3. |Peer Vs. Expert Reviews Constraints †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ |4| |1. 4. Impact on Customer Behaviour †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢ € ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ |5| |1. 5. |Consumer Information Utilization†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ |6| 2. |CONCLUSION †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ |9| 3. |REFERENCE LIST †¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦ |10| Page | 2 1. LITERATURE REVIEW 1. 1. Restaurant Review Systems Context As of January 2013 Yelp recorded 100 million visits on Yelp. om not including the 9. 4 million unique users of its mobil e application, ranking Yelp the 34th most trafficked website in the US. (Wilhelm, 2013). In addition, The Zagat New York guide sold 500,000 copies last year and it now includes 2,050 restaurants from all five boroughs in its 2013 edition. (Talmadge, 2008 ) Ultimately, The Guide Rouge sells around 1. 2 million copies per year in eight countries, and it impressively sold out 120,000 copies in no more than three days, on its first Tokyo 2008 edition (Michelin, 2011).Davis (2009) synthesizes â€Å"Restaurant reviews which, in addition to recording eating experiences, educate and inform us about how to culturally contextualize, judge, and compare eating experiences in both explicit and implicit ways, how to expand our vocabulary and fill up the bank, reviews are an important locus of meaning in the realm of food. † Coherently, gourmets argue that with the absence of writing, food is merely confined to its biological purpose and economic standing. Recording the dining experiences, avoids the quotidian encapsulation and impulses food discourse into the realm of intellectual pursuit. (Davis, 2009 , pp. 13-16)Food, being a vital necessity of human nature, has developed in the last centuries as not only a survival instinct, but a desire that can drive customers to a satisfactory and rewarding emotional experience. (Berridge, 2001 , pp. 234-242) Hence, the advancing phenomenon of eating out and the fast growing pace of the Gastronomic industry, has gained uncountable followers. (Upadhyay, Singh, & Thomas, 2007) The purpose of this study is to explore the influence of restaurant reviews upon consumer selecting criteria. Examine the information quality, and source credibility of restaurant review systems and their influence on consumer’s utilization.Page | 3 1. 2. Overview of the themes Technological advances have brought the ease of accessibility to immeasurable information. Restaurant reviews systems are widely spread, due to the fact that consumers are wil ling to refer to either expert or peer created reviews before a culinary venture, to avoid potential risk or uncertainty over food/service quality. (Choi & Ok). In contrast, Bouton and Kirchsteiger (2001), elaborate on the theory that the existence of favourable rankings might affect consumers by increasing the market power of firms, leading to inflating flexible prices and therefore lowering customers’ solvency power. Bouton & Kirchsteiger, 2011) 1. 3 Peer vs. Expert Opinion Constraints Luca (2011) discusses the criticisms on the reliability of the information obtained from both expert and en masse review systems. Constraints such as the hedonic value of palatability, as a result of the diverse interpretations of quality perception in conjunction with the possibility of stakeholders altering submissions, that will cause biased results. Equally important, the subjectivity of information on peer reviewed evaluations, which normally reflect a non representative sample of custom ers. (Luca, 2011)Concerns in the case of expert reviews, for example the Michelin Guide, include the propensity to cover small segments of a market and the companies’ obligation to comply with mandatory disclosure laws. (Luca, 2011) Furthermore, Geraud et al. (2012) considerate that even expert reviews might be somehow biased; bolstering French cuisine. Notwithstanding, Johnson et al. (2005) attributed the hegemony Francoise, to the long tradition and paramount magnitude of haute cuisine culture in France. Existing literature demonstrates the significance of experts? opinion and social learning, to model consumer criteria.However the Michelin star system, especially in Europe, is to some extent overwhelmingly pondered as the most recognized and respected system for haute cuisine. (Johnson, Surlemont, Nicod, & Revaz, 2005) Page | 4 Generally, three etoile restaurants are led by highly creative and skilled chefs, emphasize on hiring high quality personnel, employ first quality ingredients and secure an exclusive wine list. Nonetheless, the absence of standardized requirements suggest an unaccountably vagueness on the rigorously selected and qualified inspectors’ accreditation criteria. (Johnson, Surlemont, Nicod, & Revaz, 2005)Comparatively, peer reviews also face system imperfections. Anderson and Magruder (2001) encounter that there is a 49% increase on restaurant customer flow as result of a ? star increase on a Yelp rating, yet this ratings are rounded to the nearest half star which might convey an imperfect signal of quality. 1. 4. Impact on Customer Behaviour Bickart and Schindler (2001) highlight the effect that online reviews originate upon customer decision-making process, as they play an influential role providing an interactive venue to share quality perception of a product or service.Conversely, Banerjee (1922) and Bikhchandani (1988) et al. (as cited in Geraud et al. 2012) Localized conformity, fashion and heard behaviour sequence caus es the purchase decision to be purely influenced by prejudice. Following preceding peers actions without contributing an own judgment leads to an information disequilibrium. (Gergaud, Storchmann, & Verardi, 2012) In accordance with Andersson and Mossberg (2004) who suggest that dining experience engrosses much more than good fooD. Gunasekeran (1992) (as cited in Upadhyay et al. 007) concurs â€Å"A restaurant takes the basic drive – the simplest act of eating – and transforms it into a civilized ritual involving hospitality, imagination, satisfaction, graciousness and warmth† (Upadhyay, Singh, & Thomas, 2007) The dining experience is sorted and evaluated in components proposed by empirical qualitative data from first round interviews (Kivela et al,1999). Primary factors empowering diners’ visit intention are the food and service quality, atmosphere, and relevant convenience factors.Restaurant reviews focus and delineate their appraisals in these determini ng attributes to assist customers’ selection criteria process. (Kivela, Reece, & Inbakaran, 1999) Page | 5 Empirical evidence has also proven the assumption of the impact that social learning, thanks to technological diversification, or professional assessment evaluations indeed contain relevant information. (Luca, 2011) Subsequently, growing literature papers link the relation between restaurant revenue boost as the result of favourable reviews. For instance, Geraud et al. 2012) finding on the comparison between the continuity on pricing level from 2004 to 2007 in NYC, considering a priori and posteriori scenarios of the inclusion of the Michelin Guide (2005) in the city, proved a substantial marginal price increase of approximately 37%. Furthermore, Luca (2011) concluded that a one – star increase in Yelp rating leads to a 5 – 9 % increase in revenue. Nonetheless, consumers’ quality perception scope through pricing signalling quality is diminishing as c onsumers’ knowledge widens. (Gergaud, Storchmann, & Verardi, 2012) . 5. Consumer Information Utilization Yet, it is unclear that the consumers’ responsiveness and utilization of the available information which is reliant on the accessibility, simplicity and trustworthiness of the actual valuable content. This hypothesis portrays the Bayesian inference which customers act upon (Luca, 2011). â€Å"Bayesian inference is a method of statistical inference that uses prior probability over some hypothesis to determine the likelihood of that hypothesis be true based on observed evidence† (Mans, 2010 , p. 1) Cai et al. 2008) conducted a randomized natural field experiment proving that assessing consumer options on menu items by providing a forged list of the top 5 selling dishes, reported an increase on demand of 13% to 20%. On the other hand, Kivela et al. (1999) explore the consumer behaviour model under the disconfirmation theory, which construes that customers compar e their own dining experience with some basis gained by direct or indirect previous experiences. This might be obtained from either social or expert assessments, and the assumption that a customer will weight various restaurant attributes based on expectancy theory.Furthermore, they studied customers’ perceptions of restaurant attributes based on demographic characteristics which shape selection criteria. (Kivela, Reece, & Inbakaran, 1999) Page | 6 Upadhyay et al. (2007) research analysis differs from the scheme that Keevela et al. (1999) suggest, since demographic variables have an insignificant impact on consumers’ preference and visit intentions. Conclusion analysis elaborates on the deciding attributes for restaurant selection, quality of food per se being the most imprescindible component.Secondly, service quality which plays a major role in customer satisfaction or dissatisfaction and return patronage accordingly. Location, ambience and other facilities are inclu ded on the deciding factors, but disregard Keevela’s et al. (1999) finding of ambience being the fundamental factor. (Upadhyay, Singh, & Thomas, 2007) Page | 7 Page | 8 3. Works Cited Anderson, M. , & Magruder, J. (2011). Learning from the Crowd: Regression Disconinuity Estimates of the Effects of an Online Review Database. The Economic Journal , 2 . Berridge, K. C. (2001 ). The Phsycology of Learning .In Reward Learning (pp. 234-242 ). Academic Press. Bouton, L. , & Kirchsteiger, G. (2011). Good Rankings are Bad – Why Reliable Rankings Can Hurt Consumers. Centre for Economic Policy Research, 1. Cai, H. , Chen, Y. , & Fang, H. (2008). Observational Learning: Evidence from a Randomized Natural. Yale University. Choi, J. W. , & Ok, C. (n. d. ). The Effect of Online Restaurant Reviews on Diners' Visit Intentions. Kansas State University . Davis, M. (2009 ). A Taste For New York; Restaurant Reviews, Food Discourse, and The Field of Gastronomy in America. New York Universit y , 4.Gergaud, O. , Storchmann, K. , & Verardi, V. (2012). Expert Opinion and Quality Perception of Consumers. Johnson, C. , Surlemont, B. , Nicod, P. , & Revaz, F. (2005). Behind the Stars . Cornell Hotel and Restaurant Administration Quarterly , 170. Kim, S. , & Jae-Eun, C. (2010 ). Restaurant Selection Criteria: Understading the Roles of Restaurant Type and Customers' Sociodemographic Characteristics. Ohio State University . Kivela, J. , Reece, J. , & Inbakaran, R. (1999). Consumer Research in the Restaurant Enviornment: Part 2 Research design and analytical methods.International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management , 269 – 281. Luca, M. (2011). Reviews, Reputation and Revenue: The Case of Yelp. com. Harvard Business School. Mans, Y. (2010 ). Bayesian Inference. Machine Learninf Foundation , 1 . Michelin. (2011, November 29). Retrieved from www. michelin. com Talmadge, E. (2008 , August 29). USA Today. Retrieved from Tokyo Michelin Dispute: http://usatoday30. usa today. com Upadhyay, Y. , Singh, S. K. , & Thomas, G. (2007). Do People Differ in